Security Politics and Regional Integration: ASEAN, MERCOSUR and SADC

Introduction				the MERCOSUR countries are yet to achieve security
During the Cold War, Latin America, Southern Africa				– the Brazilian Real devaluation of 1999 and other
and even the dynamic Southeast Asia hardly figured in				financial crises in Argentina and Brazil being cases in
international politics. Studies on the Cold War politics				point. These crises have even led the MERCOSUR
and the scramble for security in other parts of the				members to question its existence.
world, particularly in the industrial West mostly				The State Level
overlooked the Third World countries and their quest				An analysis of Third World security at the state level
for security. Even after the Cold War ended, Third				encounters enormous problems because of the vast
World security predicaments remain because of the				dimensions of security and differences in the
existence of a very complex balance of power that is				perceptions and conditions in these states. Security for
often precariously balanced. The current phase of the				these states always goes beyond the common issue
globalisation, as Kenichi Ohmae (1990; 1993; 1996) puts				of the state’s ability to protect its resources and
it, has become a ‘borderless world’ where				borders and involves the dimensions of food,
economic forces and free trade have become the				environment, economy, elites, society, culture and the
main theme of international relations. In such a situation,				legitimacy and survival of the states and regimes. In
the Third World countries often have to play awkward				other words, the whole dimensions of military, political,
balancing acts. This article is therefore an attempt to				economic, societal and environmental securities are all
look into this Third World security predicament at three				equally important for the Third World. In recent years,
analytical levels – the international system, the				the problem of transnational crime, drug trafficking and
regional and state levels. This analysis is done using				terrorism have also added to the security dilemma of
three important regional organisations in the Third				these states.
World – ASEAN, MERCOSUR and SADC. This is				Firstly, the role played by the armed forces is vital for
an attempt to reveal how security politics and regional				regimes and governments in ensuring and maintaining
integration are interrelated and intertwined in the Third				their sovereignty, ideology and legitimacy. This political
World. In the process, it will contribute to our				role of the military in the Third World coupled with the
understanding of how these regional organisations				weakness of government institutions have led armed
cope and deal with security issues with the current				groups and the paramilitary forces to gain more power
phase of globalisation.				and influence. In the case of Thailand, military coups
What is security?				after military coups have happened because of the
Security in international politics is a moot point, and it				extremely powerful political position that the military
remains so to date. For a very long time, the traditional				enjoyed. In Indonesia too, the longevity of regimes
thinking had been that "the state is and should be				depended on controlling the military. The military has
about security, with emphasis on military and political				also been used to gain more power even illegitimately.
security" (Buzan et al 1998:37). This notion of security				This in turn leads to the use of more military might
has been prevalent since the Westphalian peace of				against opposition forces leading to the deaths of
1648 where the concept of the nation state was				thousands. This type of military adventurism and use
created. This view became more important during the				of the military is particularly widespread in Africa. For
twentieth Century with the two World Wars and the				example, in August 1998, Angola, Zimbabwe and
consequent Cold War that lasted for almost five				Namibia decided to take part in an intervention
decades. Following the end of the Cold War, the				operation in the DRC to fight against rebel forces. This
scope of security in academic studies has been				intervention happened based on the request of
changed with many "wideners" who argued that the				President Laurent Kabila who came to power through
subject needed to embrace a more varied range of				military force. In most parts of the world, the
threats and move beyond the traditional emphasis on				militarisation of these problems and the new role that
the military aspects of security for the state. Such				the military began to play ironically led to more
changes in perception have created debates between				insecurity for the civilian population. Such roles as
those still subscribing to the traditional thinking and				played by the military could bring them into contact
those who wanted to "widen" the definition of security				with the civilian population and increase the chances of
so as to include other nonmilitary threats too.[1]				human rights violations. It could also bring them into
Security in the Third World				direct confrontation with the people (Pion-Berlin 2000).
Since 1945, many of the most significant threats to				But as a whole, the political role that the military played
state security have become internal rather than				had immensely reduced since the process of
external, a shift which has profound consequences for				democratisation began.
international relations. As Holsti (1996: 15) writes,				In addition to the secessionist movements, ethnic
security between states in the Third World "has				violence and internal unrest, the states of ASEAN are
become increasingly dependent on security within				susceptible to economic crises and are economically
those states." For the Third World states, security				unstable. Monetary security has not been achieved.
does not simply refer to the external military threat				For example, the Thai economy underwent a severe
dimension but also to the whole range of the				economic crisis during the 1970s and early 1980s that
state’s existence which includes internal security				led the economy to the verge of collapse. Several
and nation building; secure systems of food, health,				reforms were initiated under the International Monetary
economy, trade and environment (Thomas 1987). The				Fund (IMF) and the World Bank through which the Thai
Third World states, like all states are concerned with				economy slowly recovered. The Asian Crisis of the
their own security, internal and external. But as they				late 1990s also had severe effects on the economies
are mostly poor, underdeveloped and postcolonial,				of these states.
Third World states inherited their colonial economies,				Environmentally, over exploitation of resources and the
political structures and security perceptions. Some are				limited concern paid to the environment has now been
pre-modern and weak, characterised by low levels of				the subject of international dispute and one in which
sociopolitical cohesion and poorly developed structures				regional organisations are now more involved. As the
of government. The securities of these states are				ECLA (2001) stated, "The environment has played an
therefore shaped by these characteristics. To the				important role in the production of resource-based
authoritarian governments of the Third World, security				commodities as well as in the provision of food and
also means countering internal subversion and keeping				other amenities for the population. Nevertheless, an
internal order at any cost.				integral relationship between economic and social
The next three sections will deal with security politics				development and the environment did not form the
and regional integration in the Third World mostly				basis for development strategies and policies pursued
through the different dimensions of security at three				in the Caribbean. Since the Uruguay round of
analytical levels – the international, regional and state				multilateral trade negotiations, the importance of
levels. Where appropriate, the security dimensions will				environment to trade and development has become
include the military, political, economic, societal and				generally accepted. However, developing countries
environmental sectors.[2] Besides these dimensions,				have been concerned about proposals to bring
security concerns are located in both the external and				environment and labour standards within the purview
internal dimensions. As mentioned before, this analysis				of the WTO. This was part of the reason for the
will be done looking at how the three regional				failure to launch a new round of trade negotiations in
organisations of ASEAN, MERCOSUR and SADC				Seattle in 2000. Environmental issues were again on
deal with security issues.				the agenda at the Doha Ministerial meeting in
The International System				November 2001."

The Cold War Period				Integration and Security
The politics of the Cold War had dominated the				From what has been said above, security and its
working of the international system for a major part of				perception, for many of the Third World states
the second half of the twentieth century. It is interesting				continue to be the main source of strain for any
to note that while the Third World states were				regional integration movements. During the Cold War,
unimportant in the global balance of power and hardly				the international system had created a condition that
figured in the security agendas of Western				led to the emergence of internal strife and, sometimes,
policy-makers, the prevailing bipolar system and the				wars. Such ill effects destroyed the thin fabric that
preoccupation of the Western powers with the spread				holds Third World countries in their endeavour to come
of communism and its containment exacerbated				together.
conflicts in the Third World. While conflicts in the core				The very nature of the ASEAN Way of
and strategic areas of Europe and North America				noninterference, multilateral consultations can also be
were avoided, the Cold War turned out to be a hot				modified to a more useful and practical way. Instead
one in and for the Third World states where the				of ignoring the underlying problems and skirting the
superpowers played the game of international politics.				issues, they must be directly addressed. Of course,
The Vietnam War was the clearest result and				sovereignty of a member should be respected, but as
example.				a regional organisation, it is also its responsibility to
The intensity of the Vietnam War and the increasing				effectively deal with a member’s problems in a
involvement of the Soviet Union and the growing				constructive way. Linked to all of these is the problem
threat to regional security led ASEAN to adopt a				that ASEAN regionalism faced. It lacked in capacity
nonaligned policy. The Vietnam War continued to strain				and resources. These limitations are augmented by
members’ relationships and threaten regional				charter constraints which accord a high priority to
security. Communist victories in Cambodia, Laos and				principles like sovereignty and noninterference. In such
Vietnam worsened the situation. By 1976, ASEAN was				a situation, prospects for cooperation are further
forced to contemplate being an association with				reduced. Even as ASEAN had "come to be regarded
security as its predominant concern. Thus at the				as one of the most successful experiments in
February 1976 Bali Summit Meeting, the Treaty of				regionalism in the developing world" (Acharya 1993: 3),
Amity and Cooperation and the Declaration of ASEAN				ASEAN Way or ASEAN’s informal process of
Concord were signed. They agreed to "The right of				noninterference has come under severe criticism.
every state to lead its national existence; free from				Because of these reasons, some have commented
external interference, subversion or coercion; non				that its "central purpose seemed to consist in
interference in the internal affairs of one another;				concealing fundamental differences of view among its
settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful				members under the guise of consensus and
means; and the renunciation of the threat or use of				non-interference" and that "The ASEAN Way" did not
force" (ASEAN 1976). The reunification of Vietnam, the				deal with underlying tensions; it simply ignored them"
worsening internal security problems and the				(Jones and Smith 2002: 103, 108).
Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia led to another				The Southern African scenario was quite different
security dilemma for ASEAN during the mid-1970s.				from that of ASEAN. For many years, the SADCC
Negotiations followed during which time ASEAN’s				member states had faced the brunt of South
importance as a regional organisation to settle disputes				Africa’s ‘Total Strategy’ of destabilisation
and maintain security was widely recognised. Vietnam				and blackmail. From the 1990s, new hopes emerged
withdrew from Cambodia in 1989 and the Vietnam				within the region. But hope and reality often go their
War was concluded by the 1991 Paris Peace				separate ways. Therefore, for the SADC to continue
Agreement.				as a strong regional organisation, the SADC Organ on
Meanwhile, the southern African security problem				Politics, Defense and Security Cooperation (OPDSC)
during the Cold War was exacerbated by the				should not be allowed to function as its predecessor,
presence of apartheid South Africa, a regime which				the OPDS. Members’ suspicion of each other can
also adopted a strong anticommunist policy and came				be removed through a series of confidence building
out harshly against any socialist orientations. Angola				measures, and the adoption of a system of shared
and Mozambique, having chosen this path, were				leadership. For the OPDSC to be effective, it needs to
particularly targeted. During the 1950s and more in the				adopt a concept of security that takes into account
1960s, the South African Defence Force (SADF)				military, political, social, economic and environmental
developed a national security doctrine (Total Strategy)				issues. Mutual suspicion still remains in southern Africa
stressing the psychological, social and economic				that led to diverse perception of security. Southern
means to target its enemies, in addition to the military				African states have not yet shared common values
means. The South African government established a				and visions too. An optimistic outcome that can be
framework for implementing policies which completely				ascertained from the Protocol on Politics, Defence and
cut across all sectors of public life, called the National				Security Cooperation and the Strategic Indicative Plan
Security Management System. Louis Nel, then South				for the Organ (SIPO) is that the SADC seem to have
African Deputy Foreign Minister, said in November				abandoned the narrow view of security that was
1982, "The Kremlin has actively supported the southern				prevalent during the Cold War period. Its agenda now
African Marxist-Leninist revolutionary movements in				includes both the politico-military threats (inter-state
their quest for power in Angola, Mozambique, and				war, internal war, large-scale human rights abuses, war
Zimbabwe. The Kremlin is currently backing SWAPO,				crimes against humanity, genocide, coups d’état
the South African ANC and the South African				and other forms of illegal seizure of power, poor
Communist Party who operate against SWA/Namibia				governance and abuse of power, dangers of instability
and the Republic of South Africa, respectively"				accompanying political transition periods and attacks on
(Quoted in Hanlon 1986: 8). Using such words had two				democratic institutions) and non-military threats (food
advantages – the policy of apartheid could be seen				security, mass movements of refugees, illegal migrants,
as communist-inspired and it demanded Western				humanitarian and natural disasters, disease, poverty
support as it was a bulwark against the communist				and underdevelopment and ecological degradation)
onslaught (Hanlon 1986: 8).				(Hammerstad 2005: 7). Another major issue for
The United States, being a great power, recognises				southern Africa in recent times has been the problem
Latin America as being under its sphere of influence.				of AIDS/HIV. Interaction and cooperation between
Beginning mostly with the Monroe Doctrine of 1823				people, individual, parties, leaders and government will
when the US President James Monroe warned the				help a great deal. It is now up to the states to gather
European powers to keep out of the Americas, the				pace and start the process of confidence building and
US has, in effect, reserved the right to exert influence				cooperation in the military, political, social, economic and
and interfere in Latin America. This has been a policy				cultural fields.
factor for the US as well as many Latin American				By the 1990s, many of the erstwhile interstate conflicts
countries for a long time. The Cold War also cut Latin				in Latin America (Argentina-Chile, Peru-Ecuador, El
American countries (LAC) from the possibility of				Salvador-Honduras, Chile-Peru) had been diplomatically
relations with other regions. As a result, many of the				resolved. The policies of rapprochements followed
countries of the region lessened their dependence on				both by Brazil and Argentina had also paid dividends
the superpowers. It was the UN Economic				leading to the eventual formation of MERCOSUR, one
Commission for Latin America (ECLA) that shaped				of the biggest economic groupings in the world,
much of the South American regionalism. This can be				eventually representing 45% of the population of Latin
seen as an indirect opposition to the superpower				America. Democratic institutions in Latin America being
hegemony. Contrary to Europe, this part of the world				relatively new, they are weak in their structures paving
has been relatively peaceful until the 1960s when the				the way for nonstate actors to wreak havoc
Cold War became a hot one with the Cuban missile				(Steinhilber 2006: 7). The internal problems therefore
crisis of 1962. While several interstate wars erupted				include drugs trafficking, arms trafficking, organised
after the 1960s, the real security problem for Latin				crime, environment, natural disasters, social deprivation,
America was the Cold War, with the countries of the				transnational crime, guerrilla organisations, state
region progressively becoming an American zone of				dysfunction and counterrevolutionary violent activities
influence. Since the 1960s, the United States had				that in many cases lead to militarisation and
increasingly intervened militarily in its own backyard and				confrontations between groups. The key risk factors
installed puppet governments.				for Latin America after the Cold War are associated
The Cold War also ushered a dangerous arms and				with lack of governance, instability, and weak
nuclear race. In the face of such a threat, in 1971, a				democratic institutionalisation (Aravena 2004: 6). Let
Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality (ZOPFAN)				not the mere formation of MERCOSUR be the end.
Declaration was signed by member states of ASEAN.				Instead of relying on mere rhetoric and ideologies, the
This Declaration can be seen as a reaction to the				member states must work collectively in a cooperative
emerging multipolarity of the region with the USSR, US,				spirit and tackle these enormous problems head on.
China and Japan as the principal powers influencing				As a whole, the regions of Southeast Asia, Southern
events in Southeast Asia. Likewise, through the Foz de				Africa and South America have peculiar kinds of
Iguazu Declaration of November 1985, Brazil and				security concerns different from the Western idea of
Argentina declared that their nuclear programs were				security. For them, security does not alone imply being
to be for peaceful purposes only. Such action on the				safe from external threat and having a huge stockpile
part of Third World states can be seen as their desire				or arsenal; it also means being secured from internal
to keep away from the Cold War politics of				subversion. It also means regime maintenance and
interferences and aggressions from the superpowers				continuance, secure systems of food, health, trade and
that destabilise the Third World regions.				development. All these problems are interlinked. These
Post-Cold War Period				problems challenge the legitimacy of governments
The decline of the Soviet Union and the change in the				which in turn results in ineffective governments
bipolar world had more immediate effects for the Third				incapable of ensuring security for the people. But at the
World. It witnessed the emergence of the United				same time, no single organisation or model has
States as the sole superpower which has become				managed to establish strong governance for these
even more powerful with time.				regions to achieve these goals satisfactorily. To create
Politically, the end of the Cold War resulted in the				a new organisation to address these issues is out of
removal of support for many Third World states and				the question. The existing ASEAN, SADC and
movements. The collapse of the Soviet Union has				MERCOSUR organisations can lead the way in
discredited the alternative model and ideology				improving relations while at the same time seeking
represented by the Soviet Union. This in turn affected				ways to ensure security for the Third World states,
many movements and supports in many Third World				provided that these organisations become more
states including members of ASEAN, MERCOSUR				proactive and sincere in their activities.
and SADC. Economically, it has also resulted in				END NOTES
changes in the direction of trade and businesses. The				[1] To read more on this, see Ullman (1983); Hirsch and
military dimension also produces the same result of				Doyle (1977); Meadows et al (1972); Ruggie (1982); Walt
redirection of arms trade, transfers and dealings. The				(1991); Mearcheimer (1990); Ayoob (1997); Peterson and
post Cold War world, epitomised by the great power				Sebenius (1992); Lynn-Jones and Miller (1995); Buzan
influence of the US, its involvement in Third World				(1991a); Buzan (1991b); Buzan et al (1998) and Wirtz
problems and conflicts (Iraq, Afghanistan etc.), besides				(2002).
the complex web of international relations has and will				[2] This is derived from Buzan et al (1998)
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maintained between member countries in matters of				Thomas, Caroline (1987), In Search of Security: The
security responsibilities and management. Argentina				Third World in International Relations, Boulder, Colorado:
and Brazil are also opposed to the idea of the				Rienner.
institutionalisation of the conference of American				Ullman, Richard (1983), "Redefining Security"
defense ministers. This explicitly implies that they are				International Security, Vol. 8 (1) pp. 129-153.
against a continental security system. Though they				Wæver, Ole et al (eds) (1993), Identity, Migration and
explain that the countries of the continent are too				the New Security Agenda in Europe, London: Pinter.
different, it can also imply that the two most powerful				Walt, Stephen (1991), "The Renaissance of Security
states in the Southern Cone desire to wield their				Studies," International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 35 (2), pp.
influence on other members of the MERCOSUR and				211-239.
on the functioning of the regional integration				Wenger, Andreas and Doron Zimmerman (2003),
arrangement itself. Paraguay and Uruguay favour a				International Relations: From the Cold War to the
joint manoeuvre and want an advisory body for this				Globalized World, Boulder: Lynne Rienner.
purpose because they are afraid that Argentina and				Wirtz, James (2002), "A New Agenda for Security and
Brazil could use their nuclear technology for their own				Strategy," in John Baylis et al (eds.) Strategy in the
ends despite nuclear treaties. Brazil is also said to have				Contemporary World: An Introduction to Strategic
its own nuclear project. Chile meanwhile opted to have				Studies, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
an autonomous defense policy. On the economic front,

Jalda Bolivia

Security Politics and Regional Integration: ASEAN, MERCOSUR and SADC

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